Episcopal Church of the Incarnation

West Point, Mississippi

An Introduction to the Old Testament

Course objective: The objective for this course is to familiarize the student with the sources, content, and use of the Old Testament; to familiarize the student with how the Bible evolved, how its canon was determined, what issues are presented by textual variants and variations in translations, and how a daily study of the scripture of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha can enrich all in spiritual growth.

This is not a course about the Bible, but in the Bible. The objective in this course will only be fulfilled if the student can grow in a real familiarity with the content of Scripture, and grow in faith through this witness.

Course outline:

1) The shape of the canon: Old Testament

a) The origin of “canon” as a rule of measure.

b) The books included in the Old Testament.

i) The shape of the Old Testament:

(1) The Law, the Prophets, and the Writings.

(a) The Law: The Pentateuch and the Heptateuch.

(b) The Prophets: The major and the minor prophets.

(c) The Writings: Wisdom Literature and the histories.

c) Literary genre in the Old Testament:

i) Law

(1) Sources and origins:

(a) “Redaction” editing: the Yahwist, Elohist and Priestly sources; the Deuteronomistic Historian.

ii) Narrative literature

iii) Hebrew poetry

iv) Wisdom literature:

(1) The genre of Wisdom Literature in the ancient Near East.

v) Prophetic literature:

(1) The individual prophets.

vi) Apocalyptic literature

2) The evolution of the Old Testament:

a) Oral histories, scribal recording and redactions.

i) The “rediscovery” of the Law under Ezra.

b) ProtoHebrew and the Masoretic Text.

c) Text traditions:

i) The Hebrew Bible and the Samaritan canon.

ii) The Septuagint.

(1) Distinctions between the Old Testament and the Apocrypha.

(a) In the East and in the West.

3) The status of canon:

a) The criteria used in deciding a book to be canonical or non-canonical.

i) In the ancient Church:

(1) The Muratorian Fragment.

(2) The rule of Tertullian and the canon of Athanasius.

(3) The Marcionite Heresy.

(4) The dispute over sources of the Vulgate: Jerome and Augustine.

ii) In the Reformation Church: the Magisterial Reformers and the Radical Reformers.

(1) The text tradition(s) giving rise to the Bible in English.

(a) The authorized Bible in the Episcopal Church.

(b) Problems in the translation of Hebrew.

4) Salvation history in the Old Testament:

a) The theology of election and covenant.

i) The arc of salvation history through a Jewish lens.

ii) The arc of salvation history as testified to in Jesus Christ.

(1) Christian “typology” and the Old Testament.

Course method: This course will be taught by lecture and discussion, using handouts specific to each class. Each class handout will contain an outline of the lesson for that class, and a list of readings in the Old Testament which may be used: (a) to reinforce or explore learning discussed in the class; (b) to prepare for the next class. No assignments will be made for study outside of class, but the student will be expected to be familiar with the scriptural examples which will be discussed in a given class session.

• Bring a Bible and notebook to each class.
• The standard Bible used in this course will be the Revised Standard Version or the New Revised Standard Version.

______________________________________________________________________________

Unit 1

The Shape of the Canon

______________________________________________________________________________

1) The word “canon” comes from the Greek word for “reed”. A papyrus reed was used as a standard measure of length in Alexandria, Egypt (a Greek city).

a) The word is used in the Church to signify a “measure” or “standard”.

i) A writing is “canonical” in that it has been deemed to meet the measure of inspiration.

b) The criteria by which the Church selected works as canonical include:

i) Apostolicity: Can the work be identified with a specific apostle (New Testament) or prophet or oral tradition (Old Testament)?

ii) Use in public liturgy: Has the work been used in public prayer or instruction?

iii) Catholicity: Has the work been used in the Church in all or almost all lands? For example, the First Letter of Clement (A.D. 96) meets all other criteria, but was not known or used outside of Rome and Greece. It was therefore not included in the canon (of the New Testament).

iv) Age: Is there an unbroken tradition of the knowledge of and use of the work?

v) Inspired character: Is the content of the work consistent with the history of salvation set out in the rest of the canon?

2) The Old Testament is divided traditionally (even by Jesus) into:

a) The Law (sometimes referred to as the Pentateuch or “The Five Books of Moses”).

b) The Prophets (usually further divided into the “Former Prophets” and the “Latter Prophets”). [future class]

c) The Writings, e.g., the Psalms and “Wisdom Literature;” certain histories. [future class]

3) The Law consists of: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy:

a) Genesis: The name derives from the Greek word for “origin”.

b) Exodus: Also from the Greek, here referencing the history of the Hebrews leaving Egypt.

c) Leviticus: the “priestly book”. The name is derived from the name of the priestly caste, the “Levites”. The book sets forth many rules of priestly practice.

d) Numbers: The name derives from the story of the census of the tribes of Israel (Num. 1 and 26).

e) Deuteronomy: From the Greek word for “second law”. The book recapitulates much of the law set forth in Exodus and Leviticus.

4) The Pentateuch is thought to have been written and re-written over centuries, tracing back to a tradition starting (probably orally) with Moses.

a) Four authorship/redaction strands may be discerned (the so-called “JEDP Theory” or “Documentary Hypothesis”).

i) These are scholarly theories, not proven fact.

b) The four traditions identified are:

i) The Jahwist (“J” is the German “Y”), from the proper Name of the Lord. Ninth century, B.C., writing in the southern kingdom (Judah).

(1) God is referred to by His proper Name.

(2) J uses anthropomorphic terminology with reference to God (e.g., God walks and talks in the Garden of Eden).

(3) J emphasizes storytelling.

(4) The J source is the earliest and most comprehensive source in the Law.

ii) The Elohist, from the Hebrew word for God (elohim) used in this tradition. The word has a plural form but takes a usage in the singular by context and verb form.

(1) Written (In the northern kingdom, Israel) after the fall of Solomon’s kingdom (eighth century, B.C.), to respond to the need for an official account of Jewish origins.

(2) Less vivid storyteller; fewer anthropomorphisms.

iii) The Deuteronomistic Historian, from evidence of a thorough editing and reordering of the first five books, undertaken in the seventh century, B.C.

(1) Reflects northen and sourthern traditions, but written, probably, in the south (Judah) after flight from the north.

(2) Limited vocabulary, very repititious.

iv) The Priestly source, from evidence of a concern with cult practices.

(1) Probably reflecting the sixth century B.C. need of a community in exile (in Babylon), and thus stressing obedience to the Law.

(2) Not a good storyteller.

(3) God is in heaven, not involved intimately in human affairs.

c) The Pentateuch can be divided into two strands of Law and Narrative. [see attached chart]

______________________________________________________________________________

Unit 2

The Ten Central Themes of the Five Books of Moses[1]

______________________________________________________________________________

The Pentateuch represents not only a collection of narratives and law, but reflects a worldview which differs greatly from our own. It is useful, therefore, to identify the themes which are returned to again and again in this earliest collection of Scripture. The following are salient:

Creation Establishes a Good World

When Genesis 1 affirms that God created all things by speaking a word, it means that all is ordered by the divine plan and works together in harmony. After Creation was completed, God looked upon it and “found it very good” (Gen. 1.31). Thus, no matter the evil and failure that follow in world history, we are to recall that goodness will prevail.

God has Blessed Human Life

An important corollary of a good world is divine blessing upon it. Twice we are told in Genesis that God blessed the human race (Gen. 1.28; 9.1). Later, the blessing of Abraham (Gen. 12.2) is highlighted, as are those of Sarah and Isaac (Gen. 17.16), Jacob (Gen. Gen 27.27-29), of the whole people by Aaron (Num. 6.24-26), of the nation by Balaam (Num. 23.20), and, as the finale of the Pentateuch, of each tribe by Moses (Deut. 33.1-29).

Humanity has a Tendency to Sin

Much of the biblical narrative centers on the disobedience and sinfulness of God’s creatures who refuse to heed or obey the divine will. In turn, many of the laws center on atonement (par-ticularly in Leviticus), and on the need for repentance and turning back to God (in Deuteronomy in particular).

God Delivers from all Evil

If humanity tends toward rebellion, God tends toward forgiveness and mercy. God spares Adam and Eve, Cain and Noah, and others in order to give the human race a new start each time after it sins. God is revealed above all else as a liberating God in the Exodus. This becomes the heart of Israel’s praise for God in the Passover celebration.

God Fulfills His Promises

The Pentateuch stresses again and again the fulfillment of the promise made to Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses that God will make them into a great people. The Lord has no characteristics of an ancient “god” patterned on the recurrent cycles of nature, but always the God of the future who calls forth in Israel a trusting hope that must expect new and greater divine acts still to come.

The Covenant Binds God to Israel

All peoples believe their gods relate to the world somehow, but only between Israel and the Lord do we find a union based on love and loyalty pledged to each other in permanent union that actually respects the role of the human partner. The covenant is the heart of biblical faith because it expresses a unique bond between God and people, built on past deeds but committed to future collaboration.

The Law Expresses Israel’s Bond to God

The covenant establishes a relationship, but the laws of the Pentateuch show how that relationship is to be lived out by the people. The Law is not a set of restrictive rules, but a dynamic way of life that expresses faithfulness to God in actions as well as words, always with a flavor of joy (in worship and praise).

Worship = Praise = Thanks

To pray is to praise, and to praise is to thank God. The Pentateuch constantly points out what God has done for Israel, and the laws point to a spirit of rejoicing and thanksgiving on Israel’s part in giving back to God a part of the gift to them: namely, praising the divine goodness in all things. (This theme is later reflected very prominently in the psalms.)

Religious Life is Life in Community

Israel is a people, not a collection of individuals. Discovery of the divine will and proper praise can only be given by human voices joined together. God’s many revelations can be appreciated only when memories are shared and mutual goodness is shown in action to one another.

God Directs all History

The natural conclusion to be drawn from the attributes of God described above is that all things fall under divine providence. The central faith of Israel that there is one, and only one, God, leads to the recognition of the divine lordship over all peoples and all events. God both blesses and punishes, sets obstacles as well as shows the way to pass through them. All things are in the hands of God, and so no course of action may be contemplated except to walk in the ways of the Lord.

______________________________________________________________________________

Unit 3

Meet the Prophets

______________________________________________________________________________

Both Jewish and Christian traditions divide the Old Testament into the Law, the Prophets and the Writings. We have looked already at the Law, and now shift to the Prophets, bearing in mind that this tripartite division includes with the prophetic literature the history narratives (Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, and 1 & 2 Kings). For purposes of our discussion, we will treat the historical narratives as reflecting the central themes of the Law discussed in Unit 2.

The Prophets proper then may be divided into the “Major Prophets” and the “Minor Prophets” (see the listing at the end of this section). This ignores that prophetic figures appear elsewhere (e.g., Samuel and Daniel), but as a corpus the Major and Minor Prophets include all of the themes of prophetic literature.

Terminology:

“Prophet” can represent the Hebrew titles of hōzeh (“seer”), rō’eh (“diviner”), ēsh ha’elohim (“man of God”) or nabí (“prophet”). The titles are not really interchangeable. Where Amos or Daniel might be described as a seer (one who sees and reports visions), and Samuel as a diviner (one who interprets signs), the “prophet” and “man of God” is more the individual who speaks for God, a holy man who may personify the deity as the one who bears the burdens of the people (e.g., Isaiah).

Timing:

With the signal exception of Moses, prophets do not appear early in Israel. Prophetic roles and character are at times assumed (e.g., by Abraham at Gen. 20.7; by Miriam at Exod. 15.20; and by Deborah at Judg. 4.4), but these are not the dominant roles of these figures. Prophets per se do not really appear prior to the formation of the full Israelite state, about 1000 B.C., under David. Moreover, within about 75 years of the destruction of Judah as an independent state, the prophets disappear. The timing of classical prophecy relates very much to the existence of the monarchic state of Israel, a time when the king spoke and acted for Israel, for good or for ill.

Literary Form:

Prophetic testimony contains common literary elements, including:

• Symbolic action reports: a description of prophetic behavior that is designed to convey a message (e.g., Isa. 20.1-6: Isaiah walks naked for three years “as a sign and portent against Egypt and Ethiopia”). Action rather than work or speech provides the key element.
• Commissioning reports: sometimes called “call narratives.” Isaiah 6 and Jeremiah 1.4-10 are the most famous examples.
• Vision reports: The prophet experiences that which is happening or is about to happen. For example, four such reports appear in Ezekiel (in chs. 1, 8, 37 & 40).
• Legend: The actions of Elijah and Elisha in 1 & 2 Kings are narrative stories, but stories with a didactic point, that in the re-telling have become legends of the people.
• Historiography: The re-telling of actual historical events, such as when Isaiah (in chs. 36-39) tells of the attack on Jerusalem by Senacherib. Such stories attest to the role of the prophet in national affairs.
• Biography: the life of the prophet may be related in detail, as in Jeremiah.
• Divinatory chronicle: The prophet may function as a diviner (as in Ezekiel), or may respond to specific questions for God (Zech. 7-8).
• Poetic speech: Structured speech is the predominant form of prophetic speech. Often the prophets speak in the form of indictment and judgment, e.g. in the language of a divine court.

Religious and Ethical Issues: Three themes are prominent in prophetic literature:

• Covenant and Imperium: The prophets often remind the people of what they have already agreed to in the covenant with the Lord. For example, much of the language in Hosea 4 echoes the Ten Commandments. When the prophets speak in terms of indictment and judgment, they speak for God, and thus recite a lawsuit under the terms of the covenant (see Mic. 6.1-8), and may in fact utter curses (e.g., Isa. 34.11-17, which echoes Deut. 28).
• The prophets often also speak to other nations (Isa. 13.1-23.18; Jer. 46.1-51.58; Ezek. 25.1-32.32), although Jeremiah is the only one referred to as “a prophet to the nations.” When the prophets speak to the nations, the set forth God’s plan for Israel, and by extension for the world.

§ Ethical norms: Much of the critique spoken by the prophets relates to ethical norms. Amos (1-2) indicts the nations for behavior that all humans would ordinarily find heinous. Isaiah (14) speaks of behavior against Israel’s God which is prideful. When the prophets speak of Israel per se, they speak of ethical behavior in the sense of obeying the Law. The principle of righteousness involves beneficence.

§ Hope: Despite the propensity of prophetic literature to identify the many ways in which humans have fallen short of both universal and Israelite ethical and religious norms–along with the ensuing results–the prophets most often strike a hopeful note. In other words, the prophets focus much on the destruction and restoration of Israel (and Judah), but with an emphasis on the latter, on restoration into a state as intended by the Lord.

Who are the prophets?

The Former Prophets: Samuel, Elijah, Elisha.

The Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel.

The Minor Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,

Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.

______________________________________________________________________________

Unit 4

The Theology of “the Writings”:

Narrative, Wisdom Literature, and Apocalyptic

______________________________________________________________________________

The third type of literature found in the Old Testament consists of the “Writings.” This broad classification includes those books of narrative history often referred to as the “Former Prophets” (Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, and 1 & 2 Kings), and the broad genre of “Wisdom Literature.” Wisdom literature includes both books such as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, together with many writings that are parts of the Apocrypha in Protestant Bibles, together with Daniel, which–while part of the Writings–is sui generis as an example of a type of writing known as “Apocalyptic”.

The traditional tripartite division of the Old Testament ignores the very different characters and purposes of writings in the Wisdom Literature tradition and those which are narratives (e.g., 1 & 2 Chronicles). For purposes of this course, therefore, we will consider narrative literature together with the Former Prophets, for there are perhaps greater parallels within this grouping than within the broader classification of the Writings.

The Former Prophets and Narrative Literature

Books included as Former Prophets include: Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, and 1 & 2 Kings. In Catholic Bibles following the Septuagint text tradition, 1 & 2 Samuel are known as “1 & 2 Kings,” and 1 & 2 Kings are known as “3 & 4 Kings”.

Books included as narrative literature include: 1 & Chronicles, Ruth, Esther, Ezra, and Nehemiah.

Common Themes:

The Former Prophets: The concept of one people in covenant with and under the rule of the Lord predominates. Thus, in Joshua the people enter the promised land under one strong leader. Joshua (the book) ends with the death of this leader (Joshua), and Judges then begins “after the death of Joshua.” The time frame for this transition is not specified, but Judges refers to the people not as “Israel,” but as “the children of Israel.” Judges is told in a disjointed fashion, reflecting the fact that the people are fractured into competing tribes. There is no one leader, and this absence of a unifying leader is portrayed as an evil, leading to great iniquities among the people.

In 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings we witness the rise of the unified Jewish monarchy. Despite struggles and personal failings in monarchs, the Jewish golden age arises under David and Solomon, with the building of the Temple. The Lord is truly in His people’s midst, and the people are united in the worship of the Lord, all under one king. The wickedness and failings of individual monarchs are portrayed as failure to serve the Lord. A common theme is the need to rely wholly on the Lord for protection. In addition to Samuel, Elijah and Elisha are prominent, as prophets who say little but do much. Their actions portray the message of the greatness of the Lord, and His paramount position above all other gods.

Narrative Literature: Common to both the historical books of the Former Prophets and to the later narrative literature, the object of biblical witness is not to record history per se, but to bear testimony to the working out of the prophetic word in the life of the nation. This same is true of those books (e.g., Esther and Ruth) which are not so much history as moral stories. The word of God is lived rather than spoken.

Daniel: Daniel must be considered within the context in which it was written and received, among Jews of the post-Maccabean period (2^nd century, B.C., i.e., more than three centuries after the events related in the book). Daniel is written in two different languages: Hebrew and Aramaic. Daniel can be seen to be comprised of “court stories’ (chs. 1-6) and apocalyptic visions (chs. 7-12). Daniel does not address his hearers as would a prophet, but interprets dreams and visions. The genre of apocalyptic literature (visions of the end of the world) dominate in times of persecution (e.g., after the revolt of the Maccabees): that God will vindicate the righteous.

Wisdom Literature

This is a broad genre, reflecting a style of writing common in the ancient Near East. Books included as Wisdom Literature include many books placed in the Apocrypha in Protestant Bibles, and includes both books written in Hebrew and in Greek (e.g., Sirach, or the Wisdom of Solomon [sometimes called “Baruch”], and Wisdom). The best-known books in this tradition include Psalms and Proverbs, together with Job, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon (the “Song of Songs”). The remainder of the Wisdom books are all in the Apocrypha in Protestant Bibles, and range from Tobit (a sort of sapiential short story concerned with the morality of everyday living) to tales of heroism told to make a moral point (e.g., Susanna).

Thematic content: These books say almost nothing about the history of Israel, but are concerned with right living: how the just and wise man is to live. Righteousness is not linked to observance of the Law, but to enlightenment. The books are strongly didactic in nature, making a point of saying that they teach. They are concerned both with practical living and with going beyond practical living, to teach the nature of wisdom itself, and the relationship of wisdom to the Lord. “Wisdom” is often personified (in Greek as Hagia Sophia, “Holy Wisdom”) using the feminine pronoun.

It is very possible that the Wisdom books and Deuteronomy were written by the same class of scribes (ca. the 8^th and 7^th centuries, B.C.) Much vocabulary is similar, and wisdom is reckoned in Deuteronomy to be obedience to the Lord (4.5-8; 32.6, 21, 28-31). “Wisdom” thinking was probably in the mainstream of biblical thought, and it is thus not surprising that wisdom elements are not uncommon in many books of the Bible. Common theme include:

• Cosmic order: There is a divinely ordained order in the natural world. Human beings are part of nature, and not separate from it.
• Creation: The Lord is the author of all creation, determining boundaries and setting forever that His works do not disobey the divine word. Human beings, however, have free choice. We are called to obedience, and the path of wisdom lies in obedience.
• Wisdom: The rules or laws which are part of the structure of the world can be discovered through wisdom. These norms can be expressed and taught to others. Wisdom is practical, involving knowledge of how the world works. Human wisdom has limits (Prv. 26.4-5, “Do not answer fools according to their folly ...”). Wisdom is both a human task and a divine gift , and is an object of constant reflection.
• Human choice has consequences: All actions have consequences, leading to the doctrine of “Two Ways”.
• Two Ways: Life presents two paths, each with an intrinsic dynamism. The contrast may be explicit (as between Wisdom and Folly, in Prv. 4.10-19). Psalm 1 is also an example. One way of living is blessed and the other cursed, but these ways of living are not static.
• The Problem of Evil: A skeptical thread runs through wisdom literature. Nonetheless, no separate power of evil is recognized. God is the source of all creation. Wisdom literature recognizes that one may be righteous and yet suffer (e.g., Job).
• Personification of Wisdom: Wisdom is personified as a woman. Nonetheless, she is never confused with being a goddess. Her qualities may be enumerated (Wis. 7.22-23), but as those of a creature of the Lord. As a person, she bears the hallmarks of metaphor.

______________________________________________________________________________

Unit 5

Salvation History and Christian Typology

______________________________________________________________________________

To look at the Old Testament in the broadest context it is necessary to consider two overarching perspectives: (1) Salvation History; and (2) Christian Typology.

Salvation History: The history of the salvation of the human race, beginning with God's promise of a Redeemer (Genesis 3.15) and continuing to the end of the apostolic age, or the death of the apostle St. John. The fullness of salvation is revealed, of course, in the New Testament (e.g., the birth, life, death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus; the coming of the Holy Ghost at Pentecost; the spread of the Gospel), and so we will conclude this review of the Old Testament by looking at Christian “typology” (discussed below): How is Jesus foreshadowed in the salvation history set forth in the Old Testament?

Salvation History and Christian Typology

______________________________________________________________________________

Salvation History is the history of the salvation of the human race, beginning with God's promise of a Redeemer (Genesis 3.15) and continuing to the end of the apostolic age, or the death of the Apostle St. John.

Salvation history in the Old Testament may be traced in parallel with the history of the Jewish people.

Period in History

Patriarchal Period: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as the pioneers of the Israelite nation. The story begins in Ur (in Mesopotamia); Abraham journeys northwest and then west to Canaan. Later, Jacob and his family settle in the Nile Delta in Egypt, to escape famine. The Hebrews lived comfortable in Egypt so long as Joseph and his family enjoyed the favor of Pharaoh. Later, they were enslaved.

Moses and Exodus: The Lord called Moses to free His people from Egypt. Moses lead them out of captivity, into the wandering in the wilderness. During the wanderings, Moses received the Decalogue from the Lord on Mt. Sinai, and the Lord ratified His covenant with the Jews. At the point of entering the Promised Land, Moses died, and was succeeded by Joshua.

Settlement in Canaan: Joshua lead the people in the conquest of Canaan. However, Judges makes clear that large areas of Canaan remained unconquered. During the period of fracture described in Judges, the Lord called forth the prophet Samuel.

Salvation History

1) The Lord promises Noah (Gen. 8.21) that never again will the earth be cursed because of humans. Noah and his posterity are granted blessing and dominion (Gen. 9).

2) The Lord calls Abraham, promises him posterity and inheritance, and that by his posterity all people shall be blessed (Gen. 15). An heir is born (Gen. 21).

3) Jacob reaffirms the covenant with the Lord (Gen. 28.20).

4) Joseph is chosen by the Lord to protect the Hebrews in Egypt (Gen. 39-46).

1) God calls forth Moses and reveals the Divine Name (Exod. 3).

2) God reaffirms to Moses the covenant made with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Exod. 6.4). Redemption is promised (Exod. 6.6).

3) The Passover is instituted (Exod. 12).

4) The Hebrews are delivered from the Egyptians (Exod. 14).

5) Bread from heaven (Exod. 16); Water from the rock (Exod. 17).

6) The people consecrated (Exod. 19); Moses received the Law (Exod. 20).

1) Joshua renews the covenant (Josh. 8.32).

2) The tribes are gathered, and renew the covenant (Josh. 24).

Rise of the Monarchy: Samuel was both prophet and last of the judges. He was responsible for the establishment of a unified monarchy. Following the unsuitable Saul, David became king, and united the northern and southern tribes of Israel by capturing Jerusalem and making it his capital. (Jerusalem was on neutral ground between the north and south.) David made Jerusalem the religious capital by bringing with him the Ark of the Covenant.

Solomon succeeded his father, having his father’s faults and lacking his virtues. Despite his wisdom, Solomon alienated his people through heavy taxes and forced labor. The northern tribes seceded and formed their own kingdom after his death in 922 B.C.

Divided Kingdom: Following generations of northern-southern rivalry, good terms were established between Jeroboam II of Israel and Uzziah of Judah. During this period, wealth became more stratified between rich and poor. In the eighth century B.C., the rise of the Assyrian empire lead to the fall of Israel. Judah remained independent until its fall to the Babylonians in the sixth century. The Jews were sent into exile, and the Temple destroyed.

Return from Exile: In 539 B.C. Babylonia fell to Cyrus, king of Persia. Cyrus issued an edict which allowed the Jews to return to their homeland. The Temple was rebuilt. In the fifth century, returning Jews under Ezra reinforced the observance of the Law.

1) Samuel is called (1 Sam. 3).

2) David is anointed king (1 Sam. 16).

3) David is anointed king of Judah (2 Sam. 2), and of all Israel (2 Sam. 5).

4) The Lord promises that the throne over Israel shall be everlasting (2 Sam. 7.12-16).

5) The northern tribes secede (1 Kg. 12).

6) Elijah and Elisha show the greatness of the Lord (1 Kgs. 17-2 Kgs. 13). The Lord visits His redemption through His prophets on non-Jews: the widow at Zarephath (1 Kgs. 17) and Naaman the Syrian (2 Kgs. 5).

1) The Passover is reinstituted (2 Kgs. 23.21).

2) The whole long period of the divided kingdom is the period in which the prophets are prominent, prophesying both downfall and salvation.

1) Cyrus proclaims liberty for the exiles (2 Chron. 36.22). He is proclaimed “messiah” by Isaiah (45.1).

2) Worship is restored at Jerusalem (Ez. 3).

3) The Temple is rebuilt, pursuant to the decree of King Darius of Persia (Ez. 6.13-18); the Passover is celebrated (Ez. 6.19-22).

Alexander the Great and Hellenism:

Alexander conquered Palestine in 322 B.C., leading to a diffusion of Greek culture and language. Under Alexander’s heirs (the Ptolemies and the Seleucids) imposed Hellenism, including pagan worship, on their subjects. The Hasmonean priestly family (under Judas “the Maccabee” or “hammer”) lead a successful rebellion. The Temple was rededicated in 164 B.C., and Judah was independent until conquered by the Romans in 63 B.C.

Roman Rule: The Romans maintained a military government in their province of Judea, but allowed local rule through the king Herod the Great, and through his sons, the Herodian tetrarchs. One of the tetrarchs (Archelaus) was so corrupt that the Romans banished him to Gaul in A.D. 6, and instituted direct rule under a prefect, among whom we find Pontius Pilate (ruled A.D. 26-36).

1) The Temple is rededicated. The story of this period of revolt is found in 1 & 2 Maccabees, in the Apocrypha.

1) John the Baptizer proclaims repentance and the coming of the Lord. Our Lord is born of the Virgin Mary. He teaches; institutes the sacraments of baptism and eucharist; is killed; rises; promises salvation; commissions His apostles; and ascends to heaven. The Holy Ghost comes upon the Church.

Christian Typology: Jesus Himself stated that He had come to fulfill the Law (Matt. 5.17), and taught that the scriptures of the Old testament bear witness to Him (John 5.39). Indeed, the risen Lord taught His disciples that “beginning with Moses and all the prophets” Scripture taught of His identity and mission (Luke 24.27).

Starting even before Abraham, the promises made by God form a series of covenants: (1) The Adamic Covenant; (2) The Noachian Covenant; (3) The Abrahamic Covenant; (4) The Mosaic Covenant; (5) the Davidic Covenant; and (6) The New Covenant (in Christ). In some church traditions, these covenants are referred to as “dispensations,” in which case it is common to refer to only two dispensations (corresponding to the election of Israel in the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants, and the new covenant instituted by Jesus).

When we look at the history of salvation under the “old” covenants,[2] it is possible to see the “type” of Jesus Christ in this history. The term “type” (from the Greek typoi, “examples” or “figures”) refers to a foreshadowing of the Christian dispensation in the persons and events of the Old Testament. Just as Jesus Himself could refer to Jonah as the symbol of His resurrection (Mt. 12.39-40; 16.4; Lk. 11.32), so St. Paul found in the Israelites crossing the Red Sea the “type” of baptism (1 Cor. 10.1-6), and the author of the Letter to the Hebrews found a type of Christ in Melchizedek (Heb. 7). However, a type is not allegory, for the historical significance of the person or event is not lost sight of.

Typology was extremely popular in the early Church (especially among the Alexandrian Fathers, such as St. Clement), to whom almost everything was capable of interpretation as a type. However, their method was more allegorical than grounded in historical reference, and this tendency to allegory was corrected by St. Augustine of Hippo. A more modern, and perhaps the best known example, is the libretto prepared by Charles Jennens and G. F. Händel for the latter’s oratorio Messiah.

The Psalms have always been considered a special case. Although tradition ascribes the authorship of many of the psalms to David, the psalms are thought of as David (or other writers) speaking for the the Lord. The use of the Psalter in the Daily Office is, therefore, a form of praying daily using the utterances of the Lord Himself, as an example of Jesus sharing in all human conditions and emotions. Many commentaries on the psalms have stressed Christian typology in their interpretation. Salient examples include those of St. Hilary of Poitiers, St. Augustine of Hippo, and Bl. John Mason Neale. The psalm which contains the type of Christ par excellence is Ps. 22. Indeed, when Jesus utters His last words (Mark 15.34; Matthew 27.46)m “Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?” (“My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?”), He is reciting the first line of Psalm 22. A reading of Ps. 22 reveals that these words–while despairing–are the beginning of a prayer which concludes in the assurance that the Lord delivers.

The Old Testament passages which are commonly thought to refer to the coming of the Christ include:

The Messiah is Promised

1. Gen. 22.18: By your descendants shall all the nations of the earth bless themselves. (See also Gen. 28.14).
2. Gen 49.10: The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet, until he comes to whom it belongs.
3. Ps. 132.11: One of the sons of your body I will set on your throne.

The Incarnation is Foretold by the Prophets

1. Isa. 7.14: Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel.
2. Jer. 23.5: Behold, the days are coming, says the LORD, when I will raise up for David a righteous Branch, and he shall reign as king and deal wisely, and shall execute justice and righteousness in the land.
3. Jer. 31.22: How long will you waver, O faithless daughter? For the LORD has created a new thing on the earth: a woman protects a man.
4. Hag. 2.8: I will shake all nations, so that the treasures[3] of all nations shall come in, and I will fill this house with splendor, says the LORD of hosts.

Christ a Mighty King

1. Ps. 2.6: I have set my king on Zion, my holy hill.
2. Isa. 41.2: Who stirred up one from the east whom victory meets at every step? He gives up nations before him, so that he tramples kings under foot; he makes them like dust with his sword, like driven stubble with his bow.

Christ, the Savior of the World

1. Isa. 53.4-9: Surely he has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows; yet we esteemed him stricken, smitten by God, and afflicted. But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities; upon him was the chastisement that made us whole, and with his stripes we are healed. All we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned every one to his own way; and the LORD has laid on him the iniquity of us all.
   He was oppressed, and he was afflicted, yet he opened not his mouth; like a lamb that is led to the slaughter, and like a sheep that before its shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth. By oppression and judgment he was taken away; and as for his generation, who considered that he was cut off out of the land of the living, stricken for the transgression of my people? And they made his grave with the wicked and with a rich man in his death, although he had done no violence, and there was no deceit in his mouth.
2. Isa. 62.11: Behold, the LORD has proclaimed to the end of the earth: Say to the daughter of Zion, "Behold, your salvation comes; behold, his reward is with him, and his recompense before him.
3. Jer. 23.6: In his days Judah will be saved, and Israel will dwell securely. And this is the name by which he will be called: `The LORD is our righteousness.'
4. Mal. 3.2: But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears? "For he is like a refiner's fire and like fullers' soap.
5. Zech. 9.9: Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem! Lo, your king comes to you; triumphant and victorious is he, humble and riding on an ass, on a colt the foal of an ass.

Christ as High Priest and Mediator

1. Ps. 110.4: The LORD has sworn and will not change his mind, "You are a priest for ever after the order of Melchiz'edek."

Jesus’ Victory upon the Cross

1. Hab. 3.4-6: His brightness was like the light, rays flashed from his hand; and there he veiled his power. Before him went pestilence, and plague followed close behind. He stood and measured the earth; he looked and shook the nations; then the eternal mountains were scattered, the everlasting hills sank low. His ways were as of old.
2. Isa. 9.6-7: For to us a child is born, to us a son is given; and the government will be upon his shoulder, and his name will be called "Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace." Of the increase of his government and of peace there will be no end, upon the throne of David, and over his kingdom, to establish it, and to uphold it with justice and with righteousness from this time forth and for evermore.
3. Isa. 53.10-12: Yet it was the will of the LORD to bruise him; he has put him to grief; when he makes himself an offering for sin, he shall see his offspring, he shall prolong his days; the will of the LORD shall prosper in his hand; he shall see the fruit of the travail of his soul and be satisfied; by his knowledge shall the righteous one, my servant, make many to be accounted righteous; and he shall bear their iniquities. Therefore I will divide him a portion with the great, and he shall divide the spoil with the strong; because he poured out his soul to death, and was numbered with the transgressors; yet he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors.

Jesus’ Redemption of Sinners by His Blood

1. Isa. 43.25: I, I am He who blots out your transgressions for my own sake, and I will not remember your sins.
2. Isa. 52.3: For thus says the LORD: "You were sold for nothing, and you shall be redeemed without money.

Jesus, Judge of the Living and the Dead

1. Dan. 7.10: ... the court sat in judgment, and the books were opened.
2. Dan 7.13-14: I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. And to him was given dominion and glory and kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom one that shall not be destroyed.
3. Isa. 14.27: For the LORD of hosts has purposed, and who will annul it? His hand is stretched out, and who will turn it back?

That’s just the Old Testament! What about the history of salvation with the coming of the Christ? First, look back at the outline on page 13, above (Roman Rule). In that outline, the life of Christ is described, but we also need to look at the life of the Church.

Life of Christ: The Gospels make it clear that Jesus is the fulfilment of the Law, and the fulfilment of all that the prophets foretold. Jesus makes His relationship to the Law and the prophets clear at Matthew 5.17, “Think not that I have come to abolish the law and the prophets; I have come not to abolish them but to fulfil them.”

Jesus also identifies Himself with the God of the Old Testmant. At Exodus 3.14, the Lord identifies His Name to Moses as “I AM”. This is really a Hebrew verb which denotes continuing action: “I was; I am; I will be.” In the Gospels, Jesus is quoted a number of times as identifying Himself to the disciples with the Greek phrase ego eimí. In recording these words the evangelists are rendering in Greek what Jesus said in Hebrew (or Aramaic): I AM. This is why the Pharisees and Temple authorities seek to kill Jesus. For example, at John 8.58 He says, “Truly, truly, I say to you, before Abraham was, I am.” The Pharisees seek to stone Him for what they deem to be blasphemy.

Remember, Jesus is not just “a way” to God; He is God, and He makes this clear, saying, for example, “I and the Father are one” (John 10.29) and “He who believes in me, believes not in me but in him who sent me. And he who sees me sees him who sent me” (John 12.44). In Jesus we participate in God. Jesus uses the definite article (very rare in Hebrew, and also in the Greek of the Gospels), saying, “I am the Way, and the Truth, and the Life; no one comes to the Father, but by me” (John 14.6). This would be like saying in English “the one and only”.

The Coming of the Holy Spirit: Jesus refers to His Father and to the Spirit. The doctrine of the Trinity is not named in the Gospels, but the three persons of the one God are named, and Jesus Himself commands that His disciples baptize “... in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matthew 28.19). He promises the coming of the Holy Spirit (John 14.16), and in fact breathes the Spirit on the disciples (John 20.22). The Spirit comes upon the Church at Pentecost (Acts 2), and even comes upon the unbaptized Cornelius (Acts 10.44ff). Where the Gospels focused on the life and teaching of Jesus the Acts of the Apostles focus on the birth of the Church. In Acts 1, Jesus tells the disciples that once the Spirit comes upon them, they will be witnesses to God in “Judea and Samaria and to the end of the earth.” That’s what then happens in the rest of Acts. Stephen is killed in Jerusalem (Judea) as the first martyr, for witnessing to Jesus (Acts 7.54ff). Stephen’s speech in fact traces all of the salvation history we looked at above from the Old Testament, pointing out how all of that history points to the Christ.

Following Stephen’s death, Philip witnesses in Samaria (Acts 8), and then comes Paul, who takes the Gospel “to the end of the earth” (throughout the Roman Empire). Acts is about the truth that the spread of the Gospel is ordained.

In closing, recall that all of the conditions that allowed the Gospel to spread to all the world are here today. Quite apart from the providence of God, in the first three centuries after Christ, when the faith went from being a persecuted sect in Judea to the faith of the known world, what conditions obtained?

§ There was world peace (in the sense of no major warfare between nations).

o That is true today.

§ There was a common language (Greek) of international commerce and communication.

o That’s true today; it is now English.

§ There was the free movement of goods, and freedom of travel.

o That’s true today.

§ Finally, there was great spiritual hunger.