Episcopal Church of the Incarnation

West Point, Mississippi

An Introduction to the New Testament

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Canonicity and the Process of Canonization:

1) The concept of canon: See “The Shape of the Canon” in An Introduction to the Old Testament. The Greek manuscripts do not include chapter and verse organization. Organizing the Bible by chapters and verses did not arise until the Renaissance.

a) The canon of the New Testament is shaped as follows:

i) The Gospels and Acts: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Acts of the Apostles.

(1) Matthew, Mark and Luke are “Synoptic” Gospels (from the Greek synoptikon, “through the same lens”).

(2) Acts of the Apostles is a continuation of Luke.

(3) John is a separate account.

ii) The Epistles: Epistles are broadly classified as “Pastoral” or “Catholic”.

(1) The Pastoral Epistles are addressed to a specific church or person.

(a) The Pastoral Epistles include: Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, 1 & 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon.

(2) The Catholic Epistles include: Hebrews, James, 1 & 2 Peter, 1, 2 & 3 John, and Jude.

(3) Epistles are also classified as “Pauline” or “Johannine,” on the basis of traditional understanding of authorship.

iii) Revelation (Apocalypse): This book of apocalyptic visions is classified separately, and treated in the nature of prophecy.

2) Criteria for preservation and acceptance:

a) See “The Shape of the Canon” in An Introduction to the Old Testament.

i) The criterion of Apostolicity was uppermost in the minds of those in the Church who reviewed Scripture.

ii) This criterion was tested with relation to that of Catholicity to determine if the writing in question was, in fact, apostolic.

(1) For example, the so-called Gospel of Peter was rejected because (in addition to some the content being at odds with the four-fold Gospel, for being “Docetic”) its use was restricted to a single site in Egypt.

b) When early Christians referred to “Scripture,” they were referring to what we know as the Old Testament (cf. Luke 24.27).

i) The first reference to the “New Testament” did not arise until ca. A.D. 180, in Adversus Haereses of St. Irenaeus.[1]

ii) The first references to a fixed canon of the New Testament arise about the middle of the second century.

(1) The “Muratorian Fragment” was a list of works recognized as canonical in the Church in Rome as of the late second century.

(a) The Muratorian Fragment does not include Hebrews, 1 and 2 Peter, James and 3 John, yet does include The Shepherd of Hermas and The Apocalypse of Peter.

(b) For generations a dispute existed whether The Didache should be included and Revelation excluded.

(2) The first complete list which contains all works now recognized as canonical, and no others, is found in St. Athanasius’ Easter sermon of A.D. 367.

3) Christian authorship and sources:

a) The Gospels have from the beginning been identified with their eponymous authors.

i) Mark is considered to be the Gospel first written (perhaps as early as A.D. 60; 68–73 likely).

(1) In Church Tradition Mark is thought to have relied upon the personal recollections of Peter.

ii) Matthew relies upon Mark and upon another source or sources.

(1) Matthew is later (ca. 85) and thus reflects knowledge of the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.

(2) “Matthew” is identified by most modern scholars with a “Matthean community” which was particularly active after Christians were expelled from the synagogue (ca. 85) after the Council of Jamnia.

(3) Matthew’s additional source(s) may include an oral tradition in the Matthean community and/or a separate tradition (almost certainly oral) which scholars refer to as “Q” (from quelle, the German word for “source”).

iii) Luke is roughly contemporaneous with Matthew (ca. 85).

(1) Luke refers to his reliance on sources (Luke 1.1-3). He certainly relies on Mark and Q, but may have a separate oral source.

(2) Luke is also the author of Acts. Luke and Acts are volumes 1 and 2 of one work (Acts 1.1).

iv) John is unrelated to the other Gospels, dating anywhere from A.D. 80 to 110 (likely ca. 95).

(1) Many scholars point to authorship in a “Johannine community,” with redaction taking place in the first decade of the second century.

(2) “John” is also considered to be the author of the Johannine epistles,

(a) Church Tradition teaches that John also wrote Revelation. However, most scholars believe a separate author was involved.

4) Theories of inspiration: The Church has inherited the conception of the divine inspiration of Scripture from Judaism.

a) The New Testament itself refers to Scripture (the Old Testament) as “God-breathed” (theopneustos) (2 Tim. 3.16; 2 Pet. 1.21).

i) This attitude was applied to the New Testament as its text became accepted.

ii) The Fathers (e.g., Origen) taught that Scripture is written by the Holy Spirit, using the human authors as instruments (cf. Ps. 45.1).[2]

b) Just as God inspired the prophets to speak, so has he inspired the authors of the several books of the Bible. This does not mean that the Bible was dictated word-for-word, and is thus to be followed literally.

i) “Infallibility” requires literal interpretation. Under this theory no part of the Bible can be seen to be inaccurate or contain error.[3] texts which appear to be in conflict are not, and must be understood at a different level.

ii) “Inerrancy” is not the same as infallibility. This theory teaches that Scripture as a whole cannot lead one into error (even where texts are in conflict), provided Scripture is received in faith.

c) Modern theories of inspiration focus on Scripture as a social phenomenon, and thus one which is “culturally conditioned”.

i) A necessary corollary to this understanding is that Scripture must be received as “relevant” by any given culture.

Aspects of New Testament Thought

1) Narrative: Much of the Gospels (and most of Acts) consists of narrative, stories about Jesus and the disciples. In Acts the narrative follows a chronological pattern to recount the early history of the spread of Christianity from Jerusalem. In the Gospels a pattern of short narrative stories appears, consistent with literary practice in the Mediterranean culture of the day. Narrative types include:

a) Pronouncement stories: The main point in such a narrative is Jesus’ response to a person or situation. An example is Matthew 18.21-22, in which Peter asks the Lord how many times he must forgive a fellow believer who sins against him.

i) The pronoucements are notable more for being provocative and memorable than for presenting reasoned arguments for a position.

ii) Prouncement stories can be further classified as:

(1) Corrections: The view of one party is corrected (generally by the Lord). See, e.g., Matt. 8.21-22; Mark 9.33-37.

(2) Commendations (rare): These are similar to corrections except that Jesus commends what He has seen or heard. See, e.g., Matt. 16.13-20 (Jesus lauds Peter’s confession that he is the Christ).

(3) Objections: Jesus answers an objection, such as a demand for justification. See, e.g., Mark 7.1-15 (eating with defiled hands).

b) Quest stories: These are generally longer and more complex than pronouncements. Jesus’ response in now part of a larger quest by an individual, such as the Syrophoenician woman at Mark 7.24-30, or the sinful woman in the Pharisee’s house (Luke 7.36-50).

i) Social status is often a factor in these stories. A person of high social status fails in his quest (Mark 10.17-22), while outcasts and aliens succeed (Luke 17.12-19; 19.1-10; 23.39-43).

c) Inquiry stories: In these stories the movement is from a request for instruction to the answer. A famous example is the Lord’s Prayer at Luke 11.1-4.

2) Parables: Parables are imaginative narratives composed to teach about a subject or issue that lies beyond the literal subject matter of the story.

a) Parables may be metaphorical (a similitude or parable proper), in which a connection is suggested between the content of the story and a sphere of meaning (e.g., the mustard seed at Mark 4.30-32).

b) Parables may take the form of an “example story” (e.g., the rich fool at Luke 12.16-21). Here the meaning is not a part of another sphere, but contained within the story itself.

c) The Gospel of John does not use parables like those found in the Synoptic Gospels.

i) John uses a similar form, but rarely. For example a short simile may be used (as in the grain of wheat that dies but is fruitful (John 12.24).

ii) John also uses “figures of speech,” as in the sheep, shepherd and sheepfold found at John 10.7-18.

3) Wonder stories: These are also known as miracle stories.

a) The Synoptic Gospels often refer to these wonders as dynameis (powers), i.e., manifestations of divine power.

b) John refers to miracles as semeia (signs) which point to Jesus’ divinity,

c) Wonder stories can be classified as narratives of: exorcism; healing; provision (e.g., of food).

i) Miracles may also take the form of rescue (Acts 12.1-11), epiphany (e.g., the Transfiguration), and a healing in the context of controversy over authority (e.g., Mark 3.1-6).

d) Wonder stories include those of promise, and commission epiphanies (e.g., of an angel instructing Joseph or Mary, or of the risen Lord’s commission of the disciples).

4) Eschatology: The term eschatology (from the Greek eschatos, “last”) is the theology of last things: death, judgment, heaven and hell.

a) A related term is “apocalypticism,” from apokalypsis (Greek for “revelation,” and also the title for Revelation in Catholic and Orthodox bibles).

i) In apocalyptic literature, the “curtain is drawn back” to reveal last things.

b) John the Baptist and Jesus both speak of the nearness of the kingdom of God, i.e., that last things are imminent.

c) Peter, James and Paul speak more in terms of the “world” to come as opposed to the “age” to come. The kingdom of heaven breaks into this world in how we respond to God.

i) Judgment thus also invloves a call to action in this world.

(1) We are to proclaim the lordship of Jesus Christ and to act to bring about the kingdom here.

d) Scripture does not describe an immediate passage after death into heaven or hell.

i) Judgment comes at the last day, the Second Coming of Christ, when the dead then rise to eternal joy or damnation.

e) Later writers (e.g., John) sometimes refer to judgment as both a future event and a present event.

i) In Revelation an expectation of imminent judgment is expressed. Later writers have attempted to deal with the delay in judgment or the Second Coming (the parousia) with theories of history.

(1) Perhaps the simplest way to think of eschatology is to believe that Jesus’ incarnation, sacrifice and resurrection changed everything!

5) Resurrection: All four Gospels describe the appearances the of risen Christ, but the resurrection itself is not described. (The angel has not rolled the stone back from the tomb in order that the witness may see the resurrection, but that she may see that the resurrection has taken place.)

a) Jesus is depicted in ways to make clear that He has a body as the risen Lord.

i) He eats with the disciples.

ii) His hands and side bear wounds.

(1) Yet His body is changed. For example, He can pass through a locked door (John 20.19).

b) The Gospel accounts vary in details, but in all cases Jesus first appears to the women. (Mary Magdalene is known in the East as the “apostle to the apostles”.)

i) In all accounts the disciples are commissioned to further action; to tell of the resurrection, to baptize, and to preach the message of salvation.

ii) The disciples may not perceive who Jesus is (Luke 24.13-35) due to a lack of faith. As their faith develops (e.g., through His instruction), they come to recognize Him by faith, “in the breaking of the bread”.

c) The agency of the resurrection lies with the Father.

i) Jesus is “raised”. He does not “rise” (1 Thess. 1.10; 1 Cor. 6.14; Gal. 1.1).

6) The Lordship of Jesus: Scripture makes it clear that Jesus (the name means “the Lord saves”) is much more than a wise teacher, much more than a prophet. The center of Jesus’ message and ministry was the coming of the kingdom of God, the triumph of the Father in mercy and judgment, and the regathering of God’s people in the end-time.

a) Faith in Jesus is in obedience to the command of both the Father (1 John 3.23) and the Son (John 14.1).

i) The Father tells us that Jesus is His Son (Matt. 3.17; Mark 1.11; Luke 3.22).

b) Jesus is the Christ. This Greek word means “Anointed” (Hebrew = Messiah).

i) As the Anointed, Jesus is the One sent by God to effect His plan of salvation. He fulfills God’s promises to the patriarchs and prophets.

(1) Jesus affirms that He is the Messiah (Luke 4.18-21; John 4.26).

(2) Jesus is acclaimed as Messiah by Peter, and tells Peter that he has been led to this statement by the will of the Father (Matt. 16.16-17).

(3) Jesus is Lord (as proclaimed by angels)(Luke 2.11).

c) We acclaim Jesus using the title reserved for God (Gen. 15.7; Exod. 6.2). Jesus accepted this usage (John 13.13).

The Gospels and Acts

1) The term “Gospel”: (Greek = evangelion) refers literally to a “proclamation” in the sense of a “good announcement”. “Good news” is often used as a modern equivalent. Mark begins his Gospel by referring to the “gospel of Jesus Christ” (Mark 1.1), but this is in the sense of the proclamation made by Jesus, that the kingdom of God is at hand. The good news beomes the proclamation that “Jesus is Lord”.

a) The technical term for the proclamation of Jesus’ lordship is kerygma.

i) Absent the kerygma any account of Jesus’ life and ministry is not a gospel.

(1) For example, the “Gospel of Thomas” is not a gospel, for it contains only sayings of Jesus, but does not proclaim His lordship.

2) The Synoptic Problem: The “threefold tradition” and “double tradition” both refer to the fact that parts of Matthew, Mark and Luke overlap. (See section 3, pp. 10-11 supra, “Christian authorship and sources,” in Canonicity and the Process of Canonization.)

a) Marcan priority is assumed under this analysis, which is often referred to as the “Two Source Theory” (e.g., Mark and Q).

b) John is not dependent on the Synoptic Gospels and they are not dependent on John. John is a separate testimony.

3) The Gospel of Mark: Mark is conventionally divided into two parts:[4] (a) Jesus’ ministry of healing and preaching in Galilee (1.1-8.26); (b) Jesus’ suffering predicted; His death in Jerusalem; His resurrection (8.27-16.8 + 16.9-20). Mark focuses very much on continuous action, moving “scene” using the Greek connector euthus (“[then] immediately”).

a) Authorship: Attributed by the second century to Mark, the follower and “interpreter” of Peter, usually identified as the John Mark of Acts.

i) A Greek-speaker who was not an eyewitness of Jesus’ ministry; unfamiliar with Palestinian geography.

ii) He addressed himself to a community which had suffered persecution.

iii) Mark is thought to have written in Rome, probably between A.D. 68-73 (i.e. after the Neronian persecution, but probably before the destruction of Jerusalem).

4) The Gospel of Matthew: Matthew focuses on Jesus as the fulfillment of the Law and prophecy. Matthew writes to Jewish Christians who have been expelled from the synagogues.

a) Matthew has a more complex organization:

i) Introduction: origin and infancy of Jesus the Messiah (1.1-2.23).

ii) Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom (3.1-7.29).

iii) Jesus’ ministry and mission in Galilee (8.1-10.42).

iv) Questioning of and opposition to Jesus (11.1-13.52).

v) Christology and ecclesiology (13.53-18.35).

vi) Jesus’ journey to and ministry in Jerusalem (19.1-25.46).

vii) Climax: passion, death and resurrection (26.1-28.20).

b) Authorship: Attributed to Matthew, a tax-collector among the Twelve, who either wrote the Gospel or a collection of the Lord’s sayings in Aramaic, with this Gospel or collection being assembled in Greek by a “Matthean community” of Jewish Christians.

i) The Greek Gospel reflects knowledge of Aramaic and Hebrew, and draws on Mark and Q (or a separate oral tradition).

ii) Matthew was written, probably, in the region of Antioch, between A.D. 80 and 90.

(1) A post-85 date is most likely (after the Christians were expelled from synagogues by the Council of Jamnia).

5) The Gospel of Luke: Luke-Acts (ca. A.D. 85) is a narrative written by a believer to encourage belief. Luke describes the trajectory of salvation as: Israel (= a story recounted in the Law and Prophets); Jesus (= a story told in the Gospel); and Church (= a story told in Acts). In this trajectory the true faith spreads to the ends of the earth, with Jesus as the centerpiece. Luke writes to the churches affected directly or indirectly by Paul’s mission.

a) Organization: Following a prologue in which he describes his purpose in writing (1.1-4) Luke narrates as follows:

i) Introduction: infancy and boyhood of Jesus (1.5-2.52).

ii) Jesus’ preparation for public ministry (3.1-4.13).

iii) Ministry in Galilee (4.14-9.50).

iv) Journey to Jerusalem (9.51-19.27).

v) Ministry in Jerusalem (19.28-21.38).

vi) Last Supper, passion, death and burial (22.1-23.56).

vii) Resurrection appearances (24.1-53).

b) Authorship: Luke is identified as a physician, a Greek-speaker who was a travelling companion of Paul. He may have been a Syrian Christian from near Antioch.

i) Luke’s Greek is much more sophisticated than that of the other evangelists, reflecting much more education.

ii) His use of the Old Testament is from the Greek Septuagint.

iii) Luke was not an eyewitness to Jesus’ ministry. He was probably not raised a Jew, but may have converted to Judaism before becoming a Christian.

6) The Acts of the Apostles: Volume 2 of Luke, in which he describes the birth and growth of the Church. The programatic verse in Acts is 1.8: The disciples will be Jesus’ witnesses in Jerusalem, in all of Judea and Samaria, “and to the end of the earth”. Luke focuses on the fact that nothing can stop the spread of the Gospel and the growth of the Church. Acts is thus organized as follows:

a) Introduction: preparing Jesus’ followers for the Spirit (1.1-2).

b) Mission in Jerusalem (2.1-8.1a).

c) Missions in Samaria and Judea (8.1b-12.25).

d) Missions of Barnabas and Paul converting Gentiles; approval at Jerusalem (13.1-15.35).

e) Mission of Paul to the end of the earth (15.36-28.31).

7) The Gospel of John: John was written probably near Ephesus, probably around the mid-90’s, with later editing (perhaps by another hand) in the first decade of the second century. Style and theology are intertwined.

a) Organization: Following a prologue (1.1-18), the “Hymn to the Logos,” which summarizes the career of the incarnate Word, John shifts to:

i) The Book of Signs (1.19-12.50), in which the Word reveals Himself to the world and to His own, but they do not accept Him:

(1) Prominent are the “signs” (seven miracles), which begin with the water changed into wine at Cana and culminate in the raising of Lazarus (after which Jesus is condemned).

(2) Old Testament feasts feature in the narrative, with themes of light and life prominent:

(a) Jesus, the new Moses, replaces the Sabbath ordinance to rest (5.1-47).

(b) The Bread of Life replaces manna (Passover)(6.1-71).

(c) The Source of living water and Light of the world replaces water and light ceremonies (Tabernacles)(7.1-10.21).

(d) Jesus is consecrated in place of the Temple altar (Dedication)(10.22-42).

ii) The Book of Glory (13.1-20.31): To those who accept Him, the Word shows His glory by returning to the Father in death, resurrection and ascension. Fully glorified, He communicates the Spirit.

(1) The Last Supper and Jesus’ discourse (chs. 13-17).

(2) Jesus’ passion and death (chs. 18-19).

(3) The resurrection (20.1-29).

iii) Epilogue (21.1025): Galilean resurrection appearances.

b) Authorship: This Gospel is attributed to John, son of Zebedee. The content of the Gospel reveals the author as one who regards himself in the tradition of the disciple whom Jesus loved. Authorship is therefore often assigned to the “Johannine community,” with redaction taking place about the same time as the composition of 3 John (ca. A.D. 100-110).

New Testament Epistles

1) Epistolary Form: The twenty-one letters in the New Testament are grouped broadly as Pauline (Romans through Philemon) and non-Pauline (Hebrews through Jude), with Acts and Revelation as “bookends” to these collections. No letter began its life as a piece of Scripture, but as a message addressed to a particular church or person, or to people in general. The form of letters is varied, but is always designed to communicate a message and instruction. An epistle (epistolé) was a recognized literary form in the ancient world (e.g., as a rhetorical form like an oration), in which a document in the form of a “letter” is used to outline an argument.

a) Pseudonymity: It was common in the ancient world for a disciple to write in the name of and in the style of his teacher. Thus, some of the Pauline letters were very likely not written by Paul himself.

i) Letters which are considered to be written by Paul include: Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Phillippians, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, and probably 1 Timothy.

(1) Colossians was probably written by Paul; 2 Timothy is less likely to be “genuine”.

ii) Pauline letters which are considered to be pseudonymous include: Ephesians and Titus, and perhaps 2 Timothy.

iii) 1 Peter is considered to be Petrine, with 2 Peter being considered pseudonymous.

iv) 1 & 2 John are considered to come from a hand other than that of the author of the Gospel of John and 3 John.

v) James is thought to be “genuine”.

vi) The authorship of Hebrews is unknown, although in Tradition authorship has been assigned to Paul.

(1) Hebrews is almost certainly not Pauline.

2) Pastoral Letters: These are intended to provide specific advice and argument to a designated community or individual.

a) Pauline form: Letters which are Pauline follow a general form which includes:

i) Opening formula: a salutation which offers grace and peace.

ii) Thanksgiving (particularly for the witness of the recipients).

iii) Message: This can include argument and/or answers to specific questions which have been posed by the recipients.

iv) Conclusion and final greeting: This section often contains personal advice, and ends with a blessing.

3) Catholic Letters: These take the form of a sermon or argument, and are not addressed to a particular person or group. Hebrews, for example, can be read as an extended sermon ad-dressed to those with questions about salvation through Jesus.

Revelation

1) Apocalyptic literature: “Apocalypse” (apokalypsis) means “revelation” in Greek, in the sense of a curtain being pulled aside. Revelation is unique in the New Testament, but apocalyptic visions are found in Ezekiel, and in Daniel and some postexilic prophets.[5] The “message” in apocalyptic is the revelation of secrets.

a) Revelation refers to itself as prophecy (1.2; 22.7), in the sense of revealing what is “to come,” but it is paramount to remember that a vision of an eternal truth is a vision of something independent of time.

i) Apocalytpic may, therefore, be “prophecy” of what is “to come,” but not necessarily in the sense of something that will happen at a particluar time in this world.

2) Authorship: The case to assign authorship to John, son of Zebedee, is not very strong, although this position has been maintained from the first century (Justin Martyr), and affirmed by Hippolytus, Irenaeus and Origen.

a) Stylistic differences from the fourth Gospel are significant.

b) The book probably dates from A.D. 92-96, at the end of Domitian’s reign.

3) Structure: The book is structured as follows:

a) Prologue (1.1-3).

b) Letters to seven churches in Asia (1.4-3.22).

c) Part I of the revelation (4.1-11-19). The first cycle of visions.

d) Part II of the revelation (12.1-22.5). The second cycle of visions.

e) Epilogue with concluding blessing (22.6-21). Isolated sayings regarding the book and end times.

4) Symbolism: Apocalyptic literature uses symbolism widely. For example, in Revelation visions occur in cycles of seven. The interpretation of individual symbols and visions is a task fraught with dangers, but it is safe to comment that the intent of the author is more clear that symbols are to be interpreted rather than accepted as a literal truth

a) Apocalyptic literature arose at times of persecution. The overarching theme of all apocalytpic is that a truth exists beyond and above the current persecution, and that God will save and vindicate those who trust in Him.

Pauline Theology

1) Paul’s background: Paul describes himself as a learned Pharisee descended of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3.5-6). The theologic motifs he employs are all of an Old Testament character. Luke describes him as born in Tarsus (Acts 23.16), a Hellenistic town, and as a Roman citizen from birth (Acts 22.25-29). Paul’s Greek is very sophisticated, indicating an advanced Hellenistic education.

a) Saul became Paul following his “conversion”. His encounter with the risen Christ is described three times in Acts (9.3-19; 22.6-16; 26.12-18), and by himself at Gal. 1.12-16.

i) Paul never considered himself to have “converted” from being a Jew. He saw faith in Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of the relationship with God established with the Jews and now extended to all in Christ.

(1) Jesus is not described as requiring Saul to adopt a new belief, but to follow Him and to be His witness to the Gentiles.

2) God’s plan of salvation: God is described by Paul as acting for us.

a) Three qualities of God’s action are notable:

i) His wrath: This is God’s reaction to evil and sin, expressed using Old Testament idiom. This is not wrath in the sense of “anger” but in the sense of justice.

ii) His righteousness: This is expressed in forensic terms. God upholds what is right and true, and this acquits His people of sin and evil.

iii) His love: This is a function of God’s righteousness, poured into our hearts both in forgiveness and bestowing power.

b) God’s plan of salvation is something which happens in history. It is cosmic (redeeming Creation; corporate (redeeming His people), and eschatological (inaugurating a new age).

c) God’s plan of salvation is effected by and through the pre-existent Son.

i) Paul refers to the risen Christ as hó Kyrios (“the Lord”) in the same sense he refers to “the Lord” (the Holy Name). This title reflects the sovereignty of Jesus Christ over all Creation (cf. Phil 2.10).

ii) By the action of the Son the people of God are “justified”. This means that (using the same forensic imagery), we can stand before God. We are reconciled to God (2 Cor. 5.18-19).

(1) By Jesus’ sacrifice (His blood) our sins are expiated (Rom. 3.25). The burden and price of sin is removed.

3) Christocentric soteriology: Regardless of whether or not one considers the “key” to Paul being “justification by faith” or as an antithesis between the “Spirit” (divine) and “flesh” (human), it is perhaps best to focus on what Paul focuses on: salvation by and through and in Jesus Christ.

a) Paul preaches “Christ crucified”. His focus is on the proclamation that the crucified Lord is the Lord who saves; the Lord who through the “Christ event” changed all creation and our place in it.

i) God’s salvation of His people is made known in Christ, and this is a new reality now revealed.

ii) God’s salvation enters the world as a “salvific force” (dynamis)(Rom 1.16).

(1) The Gospel proclamation is that “Jesus is Lord,” to which humans are to assent.

(2) Salvation is happening (not future)(1 Thess. 1.10), by the power of the Spirit (1 Thes. 1.5) and “the word of God, which is at work among you who believe” (1 Thes. 2.13, cf. 1 Cor. 15.2).

4) Anthropology and ethics: Paul testifies that humanity has been changed by the “Christ event”. As we have been justified and reconciled; as our sins have been expiated; as we have been redeemed; as we have gained freedom in the new creation; as we are sanctified (set apart as God’s own); as we are transformed, we enter a new creation of union with God in which we share in the glory of God.

a) All this means that our makeup as human beings is changed and that our behavior must reflect this change.

i) As humans we cannot comply with the Law. In this Paul distinguishes between our human condition (“flesh”) and the divine essence (“Spirit”). In Jesus we partake of this Spirit.

(1) Our lives are to reflect faith, hope, and love.

(2) We are incorporated into Christ by faith through baptism.

(a) In this incorporation we are part of Christ’s Body, the Church.

(i) The Church (“assembly” or ekklesia) is the body of those who assemble in Jesus’ name to partake of His Body in the eucharist (1 Cor. 11.25).

b) Paul clearly holds that our changed status in creation must lead to a change in behavior, measured against objective, absolute standards as revealed by God in christ.

i) He therefore frequently lists specific vices and virtues to be avoided or practiced.

ii) Prayer and self-renunciation are keys to proper behavior.

Johannine Theology

1) Structure: John is written in the least complicated Greek in the New Testament, and yet the portrait of Jesus and His message is far from simple. John is structured simply (as outlined in relation to his Gospel, supra), and the structure reflects the theology of the revelation of the Word and glorification and empowerment in the Spirit.

2) Community: Whether we refer to John or the “Johannine community,”[6] the tradition in Johannine theology dates from the beginning of Christianity, being traced to the “beloved disciple”.

a) Upon separation, John’s theology became more developed in terms of christology, and of a primacy of love over authority.

i) This led to the open expression of some hostility to Judaism.

b) John was in close contact with Hellenistic thought. He therefore used much Hellenistic imagery in his writing (e.g., of light and darkness), perhaps in part as a response to Gnostic attacks on the faith.

i) John “co-opted” some Gnostic imagery to use against Gnostic influences.

3) God’s plan of salvation: John tells the story of Jesus of Nazareth in order to communicate belief in Him, and in His saving life, death and resurrection.

a) In John, telling Jesus’ story is telling God’s story.

i) In this story the nature/character of God is revealed: God is love (1 John 4.8).

ii) The glory of God is revealed in Jesus.

iii) The glory of God is revealed in the Cross (in God’s giving of Himself).

iv) Jesus affirms this identity and glory in his eight “I AM” sayings[7] in the Gospel, in which He identifies Himself as the Lord.

(1) Jesus always exercises power. He is handed over to suffering and death only because He permits this.

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[1] This work refers to the Gospel of Judas, a second century Gnostic work that was “discovered” in 2006, and given wide publicity as an “unknown” work. Judas has been known all along, and rejected as uncanonical. The Church did not attempt to hide this or any other such work.

[2] The Catechism (BCP pp. 845–862) teaches that Scripture was “written ... under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit,” that “God inspired [the] human authors,” and that the Holy Spirit “guides the Church in the true interpretation of the Scriptures.”

[3] This is one of the “fundamental” beliefs of modern so-called “Fundamentalism”.

[4] The organization scheme given here, and that noted for Matthew, Luke, John and Acts, is taken from Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997).

[5] 1 Enoch, a non-canonical prophetic work from the second century B.C., is the most fully-developed example of apocalytpic literature from the Old Testament era. New Testament era works include The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (1 C. Egyptian).

[6] For convenience, we will refer to “John” as a person.

[7] [E]go eimi, the functional Greek equivalent of the Holy Name, YHWH.